Research Article |
Corresponding author: Diego J. Elías ( diegoj.elias@gmail.com ) Academic editor: Pablo Lehmann
© 2022 Diego J. Elías, César E. Fuentes-Montejo, Yasmín Quintana, Christian A. Barrientos.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Elías DJ, Fuentes-Montejo CE, Quintana Y, Barrientos CA (2022) Non-native freshwater fishes in Guatemala, northern Central America: introduction sources, distribution, history, and conservation consequences. Neotropical Biology and Conservation 17(1): 59-85. https://doi.org/10.3897/neotropical.17.e80062
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Non-native freshwater fishes have been introduced to Guatemalan freshwater ecosystems since the beginning of the last century without prior risk assessment or subsequent evaluation of their impacts. We synthesized historical records, and distributional data from a literature review, online databases and museum records of non-native freshwater fishes in Guatemala. We found records for 22 non-native freshwater fishes with the oldest records dating back to 1926. Non-native freshwater fishes were recorded in 64% of the river sub-basins in Guatemala and we identified that at least 12 species have established populations. The Jaguar guapote (Parachromis managuensis) and Tilapias (Oreochromis spp.) are the most widespread non-native fishes. The species of non-native freshwater fishes introduced indicates that they are human selected (e.g., for farming purposes). Our work shows that aquaculture has been the major driver of introductions in the country, but aquarium release has become an important source in the last 20 years. Given the potential impact of non-native freshwater fishes on native fauna and ecosystems, we highlight an urgent need to assess their ecological effects, as well as to establish a fish fauna monitoring program in Guatemala to detect new introductions. Government and non-governmental agencies should promote the use of native species to supply fish demands in alignment with environmental policies and the objectives of the fishing agency in Guatemala.
Exotic species, inland waters, invasive fishes, management, northern Neotropics Exotic species, inland waters, invasive fishes, management, northern Neotropics
Non-native freshwater fishes -NNFF- have been intentionally introduced around the world for the enhancement of sport and commercial fisheries (
Guatemala, located in northern Central America (Fig.
Guatemalan major drainages and river sub-basins, following
Agricultural agencies have promoted the pond fish culture and the stocking of NNFF in freshwaters ecosystems to support continental fisheries and local food supply in Guatemala since the 1950s (
The introduction and establishment of NNFF poses a further threat to the fish diversity in Guatemala that is already vulnerable due to habitat destruction, water pollution, and overfishing. The lack of a synthesis that encompasses the origin, distribution and potential impacts of NNFF across river sub-basins in the country hinders the development of guidelines for their management (
To compile information on the number NNFF and their known records we conducted an exhaustive literature review including both published peer-reviewed literature and grey literature (i.e., reports from governmental and non-governmental agencies; undergraduate theses from Guatemalan universities; and meeting abstracts). We started our searches by reviewing publications of continental fishes in Guatemala from the early 1900s to the present. We complemented our literature review with a query of online databases (i.e.,
We also compiled records of NNFF in Guatemala from local scientific collections, with acronyms following
We classified the records of NNFF in three time periods: 1) Pre-1950 introductions prior to the development of governmental policies for the introduction of NNFF in Guatemala, 2) 1950–1999 introductions stimulated by the government and the creation of the Guatemalan Fishing Agency, and 3) 2000 to 2019 “contemporary” introductions. This historical analysis allowed us to identify temporal trends and to reconstruct the timeline of introductions of NNFF in Guatemala.
To describe the cause of the introduction for each species we categorized and quantified the relative contribution of two sources (i.e., aquaculture and aquarium source). We acknowledge that introduction for recreational fishing purposes was suggested by
We utilized the 33 river sub-basins sensu
All recorded NNFF were listed with their current valid taxonomy following
We compiled a total of 283 records of NNFF; 171 represent museum records and 112 represent records compiled from the literature review and by the author’s field observations (see Suppl. material
Non-native freshwater fishes reported in Guatemala and causes of their introduction. Drainages and number of river sub-basins where reports occur and the earliest year recorded are enlisted. Status = establishment status. Ac = Aquaculture release, Re = Aquarium release, N/A = Not Available. Drainages: A = Gulf of Mexico, B = Atlantic coast, C = Pacific coast. E = established, NE = not established, U = Unknown.
Taxa | Common name (Spanish common name) | Main source of introduction | Year reported | Drainage | No. of basins | Reference | Voucher deposited | Status |
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Cyprinidae | ||||||||
Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) | Goldfish (Carpa dorada o Pez dorado) | Re | 1946 | A, B | 2 |
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USNM, MCZ | U |
Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 | Common carp (Carpa común) | Ac | 1926 | A, B, C | 4 |
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USNM, LSUMZ | E |
Xenocyprididae | ||||||||
Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) | Grass carp (Carpa china o Carpa herbívora) | Ac | 1979 | A, C | 4 |
|
AUM, FMNH, SLU | E |
Serrasalmidae | ||||||||
Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier, 1816) | Tambaqui (Cachama) | Ac | 1989 | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | U |
Piaractus brachypomus (Cuvier, 1818) | Pirapitinga (Pacu) | Re | 2017 | A | 1 |
|
FMNH | U |
Ictaluridae | ||||||||
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818) | Channel catfish (Pez gato americano o Bagre del canal) | Ac | 1940’s | A, B | 2 |
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N/A | U |
Loricariidae | ||||||||
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (Weber, 1991) | Vermiculated sailfin catfish (Plecóstomo) | Re | 2011 | A, C | 2 |
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USAC, CEMA | E |
Pterygoplichthys pardalis (Castelnau, 1855) | Amazon sailfin catfish (Pez diablo o Pleco) | Re | 2011 | A | 2 |
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USAC, CEMA | E |
Pterygoplichthys sp. | Sailfin catfish (Pez diablo o Pleco) | Re | 2009 | A, B, C | 6 | UNIPESCA 2010; |
USAC, CEMA, ECO-CH, ECO-S-CP, LSUMZ | --- |
Hypostomus sp | Plecostomus (Pez diablo o Plecostomo) | Re | 1996 | B | 1 | N/A | UVG | NE |
Salmonidae | ||||||||
Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758 | Sea trout (Trucha marina) | Ac | 1993 | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | NE |
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) | Rainbow trout (Trucha arcoíris) | Ac | 1982 | A | 1 |
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N/A | U |
Poeciliidae | ||||||||
Poecilia reticulata Peters, 1859 | Guppy | Re | 2006 | B, C | 2 |
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N/A | U |
Centrarchidae | ||||||||
Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758) | Pumpkinseed | Ac | 1960 | C | 1 |
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N/A | NE |
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819 | Bluegill (Perca) | Ac | 1954 | C | 3 |
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UVG, USAC, ZMH, LSUMZ | E |
Micropterus salmoides (Lacépède, 1802) | Largemouth bass (Lobina negra) | Ac | 1954 | B, C | 4 |
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USAC, UVG, ZMH, LSUMZ, FMNH | E |
Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur, 1829) | Black crappie (Mojarra negra) | Ac | 1958 | B, C | 2 |
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UVG | E |
Cichlidae | ||||||||
Parachromis dovii (Günther, 1864) | Wolf cichlid (Guapote) | Ac | 1974 | C | 1 | N/A | UMMZ | E |
Parachromis managuensis (Günther, 1867) | Jaguar guapote (Guapote o Guapote tigre) | Ac | 1934 | A, B, C | 11 |
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USAC, UMMZ, UA, FMNH, AUM, UVG, NRM, UF, LSUMZ, ECO-S-CP, SLU | E |
Oreochromis aureus (Steindachner, 1864) | Blue tilapia (Tilapia azul) | Ac | 1974 | A, B, C | 7 |
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USAC, ECO-CH | E |
Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) | Mozambique tilapia (Tilapia del Mozambique) | Ac | 1955 | A, B, C | 7 |
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UMMZ, FMNH, AMNH, USAC, SLU | E |
Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) | Nile tilapia (Tilapia del Nilo o Tilapia gris) | Ac | 1954 | A, B, C | 3 |
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USAC | E |
Oreochromis urolepis (Norman, 1922) | Wami tilapia | Ac | 1974 | N/A | N/A |
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N/A | NE |
Oreochromis sp. | Tilapia | Ac | 1989 | A, B, C | 7 |
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UF, USAC, LSUMZ, SLU, FMNH | --- |
Five percent (12) of the records were reported during the pre-1950 period; 24% (64) were reported within the 1950–1999 period; and 71% (190) correspond to the contemporary period (Fig.
Chronological heat maps of records of non-native freshwater fishes in the 33 river sub-basins in Guatemala. Records are shown in three time periods (see methods) A) previous to 1950, B) 1950 to 1999, C) 2000 to 2019. The accumulated records and number of non-native fishes per river sub-basin are presented in panel D. Circles represent records with voucher specimens and cross marks represent records without a voucher specimen.
From the 22 species of NNFF introduced in Guatemala, we identified that 73% (16 species) were introduced from an aquaculture source and 27% (six species) of the introductions are from an aquarium source (Fig.
Non-native freshwater fishes were recorded in 21 of the 33 (64%) river sub-basins in the country (Figs
Recorded non-native freshwater fishes and the cumulative number of species per river sub-basin in Guatemala. 1 = presence, 0 = no recorded. The number in parentheses correspond to the numbering of river -sub-basin in Fig.
Drainage | Pacific coast | Atlantic coast | Gulf of Mexico | No. River sub-basins present | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
sub-basin | Río Ocosito-Naranjo (3) | Río Samalá (4) | Río Nahualate (6) | Lago de Atitlán (7) | Río María Linda (11) | Río Los Esclavos (12) | Río Paz (13) | Río Lempa (14) | Río Motagua (15) | Río Cahabón (16) | Río Polochic (17) | Lago Izabal-Río Dulce (18) | Río Sarstún (19) | Río Mopán-Belice (22) | Río Hondo (23) | Río San Pedro-Candelaria (24) | Río Usumacinta-main channel (25) | Río La Pasión (26) | Río Ixcán (29) | Río Nentón (31) | Río Salinas – Chixoy (27) | |
Total no. of species per river sub-basin | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 8 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 6 | |
Cyprinidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Carassius auratus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Cyprinus carpio | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
Xenocyprididae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Ctenopharyngodon idella | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
Serrasalmidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Piaractus brachypomus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Ictaluridae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Ictalurus punctatus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
Loricariidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Pterygoplichthys pardalis | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Pterygoplichthys sp. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
Hypostomus sp. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Salmonidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Oncorhynchus mykiss | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Poeciliidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Poecilia reticulata | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Centrarchidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Lepomis gibbosus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Lepomis macrochirus | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Micropterus salmoides | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
Pomoxis nigromaculatus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Cichlidae | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Parachromis dovii | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Parachromis managuensis | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 14 |
Oreochromis aureus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
Oreochromis mossambicus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 |
Oreochromis niloticus | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Oreochromis sp. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
Three families (i.e., Cichlidae, Loricariidae, and Cyprinidae) are the most widespread groups of NNFF with records across the three major drainages in Guatemala (Fig.
Distribution of non-native fishes in Guatemala, classified by Family. A and B) Cichlidae, C) Loricariidae, D) Cyprinidae and Xenocyprididae, E) Centrarchidae, F) Salmonidae, Ictaluridae, Serrasalmidae and Poeciliidae. Pacific coast drainage (light brown), Atlantic coast drainage (grey), and Gulf of Mexico drainage (green).
Four families (i.e., Centrarchidae, Poeciliidae, Ictaluridae, and Xenocyprididae) have been recorded in two major drainages in Guatemala (Fig.
Our work identified the introduction of 22 NNFF in Guatemala, adding seven species (i.e., Colossoma macropomum, Hypostomus sp., Lepomis gibbosus, Oreochromis niloticus, O. urolepis, Parachromis dovii, and Salmo trutta) to previous reports for the country (see
We identified that the majority of non-native species of cichlids (five species), centrarchids (three species), and cyprinoids (two species) that have been introduced for aquaculture purposes are now established (sensu
Six species that are common in the aquarium trade have been collected in the aquatic ecosystem in Guatemala (Fig.
In contrast with the other species introduced by aquarium release, the Vermiculated sailfin and the Amazon sailfin catfish are a major concern in Guatemala and the region due to their rapid geographic expansion. The records of these species suggest that the sailfin catfishes (Pterygoplichthys spp.) first entered Guatemala via the lower reaches of the Usumacinta River in southern Mexico, where their establishment was previously reported (
Non-native fishes are currently recorded from 64% river sub-basins in Guatemala and our data shows the geographic expansion of NNFF through time (Fig.
The Jaguar guapote is the most widespread NNFF in the country (Fig.
Centrarchids are mainly distributed in river sub-basins of the Pacific coast drainage (Fig.
The sailfin catfishes, Vermiculated sailfin and Amazon sailfin, are widely distributed in several river sub-basins (Fig.
The lack of previous research and systematic control of activities such as stocking, establishment of new fish farms, and farms monitoring, etc., has hampered our understanding of the spread of NNFF and their potential threat to native fish fauna and aquatic ecosystems. The composition and distributional patterns of NNFF in Guatemala primarily stem from four main factors. First, governmental strategies for aquaculture and restocking, supported in many cases by international cooperation (
At least two government agencies oversee the supervision of activities related to NNFF, and although there are recommendations and regulations for the management of non-native species in place (
Non-native freshwater fishes in northern Central America are of multi-national political concern because several river basins in the region are shared among neighboring countries (e.g., the Usumacinta and Motagua Rivers; Fig.
The negative impacts of NNFF introductions have been documented in a few cases. Ichthyologists have hypothesized that the fish assemblage of the closed basin of the crater Lake Atitlán was composed of “small” native fishes that were translocated from nearby rivers (
The negative effects of other NNFF in the country have not been assessed; however, several species are known to be detrimental to ecosystem functioning and native fauna. For example, sailfin catfishes can cause river bank erosion, reduction of primary productivity, and changes in nutrient cycling dynamics (
Historically, introductions have been practiced for almost 100 years, and most of these fishes have likely become part of the fish assemblages in the regions where they have been introduced. Several introduced species in Guatemala, such as Jaguar guapote, Tilapias, and Grass carp, are currently important if not pivotal to artisanal fisheries (
Our contribution to the analysis of NNFF introductions and patterns of distribution provides a first step towards better understanding the composition and persistence of non-native fishes across the country. The spread of NNFF found in our analysis underscores the need to increase a systematic control of introductions, particularly those resulting from aquarium release that are becoming more frequent. Even though NNFF are commonly used for enhancing artisanal fisheries and aquaculture projects, some of these species can be harmful to freshwater ecosystems (
The lack of applied integrative management in environmental policies and the objectives of the Guatemalan Fishing Agency in Guatemala, creates a conflict of interest that needs to be resolved to fulfill national conservation goals and comply with international treaties (i.e., Convention on Biological Diversity). A comprehensive plan involving interested parties in this matter is key to ensuring the control and management of non-native fishes. This plan could help to prevent and mitigate the impact of potentially invasive fishes and their negative effects on native biota, and to distribute the resources needed to make this task more efficient. As recent dispersals and new records continue to occur, it is urgent to look ahead to new and more adequate decision-making tools, and to develop public awareness measurements that address both the socio-economic and conservation needs of developing countries.
We thank Dr. Sergio Pérez Consuegra at the Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (
Table S1
Data type: Occurrences
Explanation note: Supplementary material contains the curated dataset of non-native freshwater fishes in Guatemala analyzed.